除美学思想外,道家对言意关系的认识,及与之相关的对文学的启示也引发了汉学家的探讨。丁乃通、米乐山等人,对此均提出了自己的看法。
西伊利诺斯大学的丁乃通在《老子:语义学家兼诗人》一文中探讨老子的言意观。丁氏分析说,《老子》开篇就通过“道可道,非常道;名可名,非常名”表明了鲜明的姿态,即语言无法充分表达真理,在末篇中又以“信言不美,美言不信;善者不辩,辩者不善”进一步加以强调。可以说,《老子》全书始终贯穿着这一基调。老子对语言保持着清醒的认识,他将语言视为人们为区分、思考周围世界而发明的象征符号,而现实世界又是复杂多变的,所以语言并非总是可靠的。[60]意识到语言的不足,老子采用了模糊、简短而又富有包孕性与启迪性的言说方式,诉诸直觉与想象,借助于意象、机智醒目的谚语以及饱含深情的言语来表达自己的观点,这无疑给后来的中国文学与绘画带来了灵感。[61]米乐山在《玄学与神秘主义》一文中将《未知疑云》(The Cloud of Unkowing)与《庄子》这两部著作进行了比较研究。《未知疑云》是一部写于14世纪末的宗教祷告经典,据说由一名英国神甫为刚入门的神职人员所作,旨在探讨如何经由冥思而与上帝沟通的问题。[62]
通过对比,米乐山发现二者关注的问题并非形而上学,而是人的经验,探讨的问题是超验的终极现实如何在文学中被感知与表达。[63]二者都认为语言作为人工制品无法辨明终极存在,而文字也只不过是指“月”之指而非“月”,语言对精神经验的建构需依赖于既非逻辑又有一定逻辑性的文学经验,即通过米乐山所谓的“语词分析”与“语词事件”的语言并置。[64]“语词分析”是分析性、逻辑性的语言,是用来解释、界定概念,对素材加以区分和归类的。而“语词事件”指的是原初的、古老的、直觉的、直接的、体验性的语言,用以通过读者对文学事件的认同来建构一种精神经验。《未知疑云》与《庄子》的语言均介于语词分析与语词事件两极之间。米乐山认为,对这两种语言使用情况的分析,有助于我们理解基督教与道家经典的文学特征。这里我们单看米乐山对《庄子》中语词分析与语词事件并置的论述。
在《庄子》中,语言与现实的关系通过类比的方式呈现出来。“荃者所以在鱼,得鱼而忘荃。蹄者所以在兔,得兔而忘蹄。言者所以在意,得意而忘言。”在此,语言只不过是表达“意义”或“思想”的工具。《逍遥游》说:“名者,实之宾也。”在以上两个例子中,语言只不过是一种实用的工具,是“蹄”(snare)或“宾”(guest)。米乐山又引《齐物论》“夫言非吹也。言者有言,其所言者特为定也。果有言邪?其未尝有言邪?其以为异于鷇音,亦有辩乎?其无辩乎”,分析说,在此段中,语言的整个功能、语言的意义与意蕴均受到了质疑,人类的语言如同雏鸟的鸣叫般微不足道。《齐物论》又通过多重否定的方式表明了语言的局限性与不精确性。例如:“有始也者,有未始有始也者,有未始有夫未始也者。有有也者,有无也者,有未始有无也者,有未始有夫未始有无也者。俄而有无矣,而未知有无之果孰有孰无也。今我则已有谓矣,而未知吾所谓之其果有谓乎,其果无谓乎?”米乐山指出,《庄子》通过正反相对的陈述与否定之否定的方式戳穿了既有范畴的荒谬性,直接嘲讽了逻辑分类。[65]对于《庄子》中的语词事件,米乐山认为其不在于攻击知性的局限性与揭示分类的荒谬性,而是通过对表现于寓言与悖论中的现实直接性直觉,来把握和唤醒一个沉睡的世界。[66]正如《齐物论》中所说,人皆在梦中,随着时光的流逝,将会有“大觉”。我们沉睡未醒而不知有一个更高层次的现实存在,但终会意识到一切只不过是一场大梦。
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[6] 陈世骧:《陈世骧文存》,5页。
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[9] 参见Helena Wan,“The Educational Thought of Confucius”,Ph.D Dissertation,Loyola University of Chicago,1980,p.190.
[10] 参见Helena Wan,“The Educational Thought of Confucius”,p.194.
[11] 参见Raymond Dawson,Confucius,New York,Hill & WangPub,1981,p.21.
[12] 参见Raymond Dawson,Confucius,p.22.
[13] Chad Hansen,“Chinese Language,Chinese Philosophy and Truth”,Journal of Asian Studies,Vol.ⅪⅣ,No.3,1985,p.491.
[14] 参见Raymond Dawson,Confucius,p.22.
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[16] 参见Steven Van Zoeren,Poetry and Personality:Reading,Exegesis,and Hermeneutics in Traditional China,Stanford University Press,1991,p.48.
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[18] 参见Steven Van Zoeren,Poetry and Personality:Reading,Exegesis,and Hermeneutics in Traditional China,p.45.
[19] 参见Martin Kern,“Early Chinese Poetic in the Light of Recently Excavated Manuscripts”,Olga Lomová(ed.),Recarving the Dragon:Understanding Poetics,Prague,The Karolinum Press,2003,p.28.
[20] 参见Martin Kern,“Early Chinese Poetic in the Light of Recently Excavated Manuscripts”,Recarving the Dragon:Understanding Poetics,p.55.
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[22] Martin Kern,“Early Chinese Poetic in the Light of Recently Excavated Manuscripts”,Recarving the Dragon:Understanding Poetics,p.72.
[23] 盛韵:《柯马丁:更多了解其他古文明才能更清楚古中国》,载《东方早报》,2012-04-01。
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[29] [英]葛瑞汉:《论道者:中国古代哲学论辩》,39页,北京,中国社会科学出版社,2003。
[30] 参见David L.Hall and Roger T.Ames,Thinking through Confucius,Albany,State University of New York Press,1987,p.48.
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[32] 参见David L.Hall and Roger T.Ames,Thinking through Confucius,p.66.
[33] Stephen Owen,Readings in Chinese Literary Thought,Cambridge,Harvard University Press,1992,p.19.
[34] 参见Stephen Owen,Readings in Chinese Literary Thought,p.22.
[35] [英]葛瑞汉:《孟子人性理论的背景》,见[美]江文思、安乐哲:《孟子心性之学》,36页,北京,社会科学文献出版社,2005。
[36] 参见Wei-ming Tu,“The Idea of the Human Mencian Thought:An Approach to Chinese Aesthetics”,Susan Bush and Christian Murck (eds.),Theories of the Arts in China,Princeton University Press,1983,pp.57-58.
[37] 参见Wei-ming Tu,“The Idea of the Human Mencian Thought:An Approach to Chinese Aesthetics”,Theories of the Arts in China,p.69.
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[39] 参见Vincent Yu-chung Shih,The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons:A Study of Thought and Pattern in Chinese Literature,Hong Kong,Chinese University Press,1983,p.xiii.
[40] 参见Vincent Yu-chung Shih,The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons:A Study of Thought and Pattern in Chinese Literature,p.xiii.
[41] 参见Vincent Yu-chung Shih,The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons:A Study of Thought and Pattern in Chinese Literature,p.xiv.
[42] 参见Stephen Owen,Readings in Chinese Literary Thought,p.22.
[43] 参见Stephen Owen,Readings in Chinese Literary Thought,p.24.
[44] 参见Vincent Yu-chung Shih,The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons:A Study of Thought and Pattern in Chinese Literature,p.xiv.
[45] 参见Vincent Yu-chung Shih,The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons:A Study of Thought and Pattern in Chinese Literature,p.xiv.
[46] 参见Irving Babbitt,Rousseau and Romanticism,with a New Introduction by Claes G.Ryn,New Jersey,Transaction Publishers,1991,p.xix.《卢梭与浪漫主义》一书出版于1919年,1991年再版,本节相关引文均出自1991年版本。
[47] Irving Babbitt,Rousseau and Romanticism,p.395.
[48] Irving Babbitt,Rousseau and Romanticism,p.397.
[49] 参见Vincent Yu-chung Shih,The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons:A Study of Thought and Pattern in Chinese Literature,p.xv.
[50] 参见Vincent Yu-chung Shih,The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons:A Study of Thought and Pattern in Chinese Literature,p.xvi.
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[58] 叶维廉:《叶维廉文集》(一),142页,合肥,安徽教育出版社,2002。
[59] 叶维廉:《道家美学与西方文化》,1页。
[60] 参见Nai-tung Ting,“Laotzu:Semanticist and Poet”,Literature East &West,14,1970,pp.212-213.
[61] 参见Nai-tung Ting,“Laotzu:Semanticist and Poet”,Literature East &West,14,1970,p.244.
[62] 参见Lucin Miller,“Metaphysics and Mysticism”,The Chinese Text:Studies in Comparative Literature,Ying-Hsiung Chou(ed.),Hong Kong,The Chinese University Press,1986,p.96.
[63] 参见Lucin Miller,“Metaphysics and Mysticism”,The Chinese Text:Studies in Comparative Literature,p.107.
[64] 参见Lucin Miller,“Metaphysics and Mysticism”,The Chinese Text:Studies in Comparative Literature,p.108.
[65] 参见Lucin Miller,“Metaphysics and Mysticism”,The Chinese Text:Studies in Comparative Literature,p.112.
[66] 参见Lucin Miller,“Metaphysics and Mysticism”,The Chinese Text:Studies in Comparative Literature,p.115.